Already in late prehistoric times, occupation by cave dwellers in varioussubregions set the stage for Anatolia's emergence as a center of the agriculturalrevolution identified with the NEOLITHIC PERIOD. Villages and towns ofthis era appear at Siirt, Diyarbaker, and Urfa (southeastern Anatolia);Tarsus and Mersin in the Cicilian Plain; the Amuq Plain; at CATAL HUYUK(southeast of Konya); Hacilar (southwestern Anatolia); and Suberde (southwestof Konya). The 13-ha (32-acre) site at Catal Huyuk (c. 7000-5600 BC) hasproduced outstanding artifacts revealing it as a metalworking, specialized-craft,and religious center. Individual city-states abound during the Chalcolithicand Early Bronze ages (3d to early 2d millennium BC). Between 1940 and1780 BC, Assyrian merchants from Mesopotamia peacefully established a scoreof trading colonies in central and eastern Anatolian cities, thereby drawingthe region into wider politico-economic focus.

The Hittites

Enduring political unification of Anatolia was achieved by the HITTITES,an Indo-European confederation that subdued the kingdoms of the centralplateau about 1750 BC. They established the Old Hittite Kingdom, eventuallyruling from BOGAZKOY (Hattusa). The confederation, whose chief memberswere Luwians, Palaites, and Neshites, entered Anatolia from Europe wellbefore 2000 BC. For the first century and a half, the Old Hittite Kingdomwas internally strong and militarily secure. Under Hattusilis I (fl. c.1560 BC) the Hittite kingdom began to expand into northwest Syria. Hisadopted son, Mursilis I (fl. c. 1620 BC), raided down the Euphrates Valleyand defeated Babylon (c. 1600 BC). Thereafter the kingdom struggled undera series of internal coups and royal assassinations until stability wasreestablished by Telepinus I (c. 1525 BC). About 70 years later came thesecond major phase of Hittite political and military power.

The Hittite Empire period was inaugurated by Tudhaliyas II (fl. c. 1460BC), but its chief architect was Suppiluliumas I (r. c. 1380-1346 BC),who reconquered much of central Anatolia and dominated Syria and the stateof Mitanni in eastern Anatolia. Hittite successes made them a major playerin the international intrigues of the day and brought them into deadlyrivalry with the Egyptian empire to the south for control of Syria andPalestine. A major battle between the Hittites under Muwattalis (r. c.1315-1296 BC) and the Egyptian king Rameses II was fought at Kadesh onthe Orontes River c. 1300 BC, victory going to the Hittites. A peace treatybetween the two powers was concluded between RAMESES II and HattusilisIII (r. c. 1289-1265). Thereafter, serious disruptions occurred in Anatolia,and the Hittite vassals and allies in the west attempted to gain independence.Finally, invasions of SEA PEOPLES from the Aegean and attacks by mountainousGashga peoples destroyed Hittite power in Anatolia (c. 1200 BC).

 Political Fragmentation

After the Hittite state's collapse, Anatolia had no political centralityor cohesion for nearly half a millennium. Archaeological evidence suggeststhe reestablishment of small principalities in the area. Textual evidenceis sparse. Assyrian records recount an invasion (c. 1160) of Assyria'swestern borders by a large force of "Mushki," perhaps ancestors of thelater Phrygians. In reaction, Assyrian armies sought first to move intosoutheastern Anatolia, and thereafter beyond the Euphrates, where theyencountered the Neo-Hittite (Syro-Hittite) kingdoms, some 16 of which occupiedthe region between the Taurus Mountains and the Euphrates. Monuments fromthese states reveal a dialect written in "Hittite hieroglyphics," whichsuggests a clear cultural and population connection with Hittite Anatolia.Incursions of Aramaen nomads into Syria, and inevitable Assyrian reactionto these, spelled the demise of the Syro-Hittite kingdoms as independentstates by the 8th century BC.

In mountainous eastern Anatolia the state of URARTU, in its turn, wasdefeated by the Syrians in 743 BC. In western Anatolia, Phrygians had arrivedfrom southeastern Europe perhaps earlier than the Trojan War (c. 1190 BC).By the 8th century BC they had created a state (PHRYGIA) with its capitalat GORDION, southwest of modern Ankara. On Anatolia's western coast, Lycians,Carians, and Mysians, probably descendants of peoples known to the classicalHittites, inhabited defined areas. By the 6th century BC, LYDIA had emergedas the region's dominant state. The fall of Assyria in 612 BC, and of Babylonin 539 BC, left the field open to the Persians who, after Cyrus the Great'svictory over CROESUS of Lydia in 546 BC, incorporated Anatolia into theirempire.

After the Persians crushed rebellious Ionian (Greek) cities in westernAnatolia (494 BC), they launched two unsuccessful invasions of Greece.During the 5th and 4th centuries BC, Persia meddled in Greek affairs fromits bases in Anatolia. The rise of PHILIP II of Macedonia and his son,ALEXANDER THE GREAT, (mid-4th century BC), initiated a victorious Pan-Helleniccrusade that destroyed the Persian Empire. After Alexander's death a numberof independent states emerged in Anatolia--among them BITHYNIA, CAPPADOCIA,PERGAMUM, and PONTUS--all of which were eventually absorbed by the RomanEmpire in the 1st century BC. Out of Pergamum, the Romans formed the provinceof Asia, which included LYCIA, Caria, Mysia, and Phrygia. For the laterhistory of the area, see BYZANTINE EMPIRE, SELJUKS, OTTOMAN EMPIRE, andTURKEY.

Louis L. Orlin Bibliography: Gurney, A. R., The Hittites(1975); Lloyd, Seton, Early Anatolia (1956); Magie, David, Roman Rule inAsia Minor, 2 vols. (1950; repr. 1975); Orlin, Louis L., Assyrian Coloniesin Cappadocia (1970).